The Metamorphosis of Malcolm X

A Comparison of Kafka's The Metamorphosis, Kierkegaard's Stages on Life's Way, and the Life of Malcolm X

May 19th, 2016 — by Nik Dobrinsky

Malcolm X was a man who underwent several radical personality transformations throughout his life and career as a political and spiritual leader. There were three significant and distinct stages of his adult life; in each he embodied a new psychological and philosophical progression from the previous, culminating with the third and final stage of a heightened state of spiritual awakening and self-realization. With each successive change in character Malcolm overcame some of the social and historical factors that shaped his identity, which for him as an African American involved the history of slavery in the United States and the subsequent racial, socioeconomic, and psychological aftereffects. In his convictions and expression of his ideals, no matter how flawed they might have been at each stage, Malcolm X showed an unusual fearlessness and commitment to each of his present realities: as a criminal outcast in the underside of America's capitalist system, to a prison inmate and devout follower of Elijah Muhammad and The Nation of Islam, and finally to an independent thinker, teacher, and spiritual leader. A story as complex as the metamorphosis of Malcolm X turns up numerous parallels with other stories and studies throughout history; Søren Kierkegaard's Stages on Life's Way (1845) speaks of the aesthetic, ethical, and religious stages of life, which mirror the life of Malcolm X, as does Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis (1915), which is also divided into three parts: the external, internal, and spiritual. 

Malcolm X was at the beginning of his third and final stage of life, of heightened spiritual awakening in which he preached of a world-unifying ideology, when he was assassinated. It's as if he was a spirit entity from a higher order whose terrestrial mission was to transcend the limitations of not only the primitive political system of the human earth realm, but to transcend the physical, mental, and spiritual limitations as a human individual; to reach his ultimate potential in this physical form and push the evolution of the species forward before returning to his higher self once again, through death. Perhaps the spirit of all humans originates from this higher order, but few throughout history have tapped into it in the profound way that Malcolm X did.

The first significant incarnation that Malcolm X embodied in his adult life is that of an underworld character in the streets of several major U.S. cities, such as New York, Detroit, and Boston. In this period he was a drug user, drug peddler, racketeer, gambler, pimp, and a thief, before he was caught and sentenced to ten years in prison for burglary. During this time, Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little), was known by a number of different names, including "Detroit Red". As stated in The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965), cowritten with Alex Haley, another moniker "Satan" was given to Malcolm by his cellmates in prison due to his "antireligious attitude" (156). During this early part of his adult life, beginning when Malcolm was a teenager and carrying on throughout his twenties, he had no spiritual or political aspirations whatsoever. His only concern was the physical world of sex, drugs, money, and the accumulation of material wealth. He also "conked" his hair—a painful process that some black people undergo of chemically straightening their naturally curly hair to, as Malcolm put it, look "more white" (The Autobiography 56). He said, in retrospect, "This was my first…step towards self-degradation…brainwashed into believing that black people are 'inferior' and white people 'superior'—that they will even violate their God-created bodies to try to look 'pretty' by white standards" (The Autobiography 56-57). He had no knowledge of his race or ancestry, being physically and psychologically imprisoned by the effects of colonialism, slavery, and racism.

Each of the three sections of Kierkegaard's Stages on Life’s Way (1845) examine a distinct aspect of human existence, and correspond to Malcolm X's life in intriguing ways. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy offers an interpretation of this work as a whole, as a progression throughout human life, categorized as the aesthetic, the ethical, and finally, the religious. The encyclopedia interprets this first aesthetic phase as being "characterized by the following: immersion in sensuous experience…egotism; fragmentation of the subject of experience; nihilistic wielding of irony and scepticism; and flight from boredom" (sec. 3, par. 1). The parallels to the three primary stages of Malcolm X's life are evident, and this description of the first certainly applies, as the young Malcolm thoroughly encompassed these qualities of Kierkegaard's aestheticism. This was Malcolm's incarnation as a purely physical being, diving wholeheartedly into sensuous experiences of indulgence as an unrealized individual. This version of him was purely primal, resulting from his environment and the laws, institutions, and history of America as oppressive factors on his identity, or lack of identity. Ironically, Malcolm's path to liberation would really begin when he was physically in prison.

Franz Kafka's famous novella The Metamorphosis (1915), divided into three sections, also mirrors the three stages of Malcolm X’s life. One significant correlation between protagonist Gregor Samsa and Malcolm X is that both are higher spiritual beings trapped in inferior, limited states of existence. In Malcolm’s case this lower existence is that of a drug addicted street hustler, and in Gregor's case it is that of an insect. This first section of The Metamorphosis focuses on Gregor's external world, his disconnection from the human world as he awakens inside the body of a bug and struggles to adapt to the physicality of his new form: "Then his father gave him one really strong liberating push from behind, and he scurried, bleeding severely, far into the interior of his room. The door was slammed shut with the cane, and then finally it was quiet" (Kafka 322).

This passage from The Metamorphosis' first section displays numerous parallels to the first incarnation of Malcolm X. Firstly, it ends with Gregor's imprisonment in his room, just as Malcolm's first stage ends with his imprisonment—both are trapped, physically and psychologically, and lack awareness of the higher powers that led to this current state of their existences. In both cases that higher power is God, although politically, Gregor's oppression is more so in a capitalism and class-focused context and Malcolm's oppression in a racially-focused context. Just as Malcolm's imprisonment was the beginning of his liberation, so, in a way, is Gregor's—the beginning of his liberation from a life of servitude, burdened by the isolated effects of being a worker who supports his entire family, without their appreciation or respect, nor that of his employers. This correlates with Kierkegaard's aesthetic stage as well, in that Gregor's primary concern in this first section is how to negotiate his way around his physical surroundings. In the above passage, perhaps Gregor's father who "gave him one really strong liberating push" is, symbolically, God giving him a push towards a path of freedom through his eventual death. Gregor has become a martyr, in a sense, by overextending himself in the workforce to support his family, just as Malcolm X became a martyr for the cause of raising African Americans from a repressed state. The difference is that Gregor seems to lack consciousness about his state of martyrdom, dying alone in isolation and depression with no gratitude from his family, whereas Malcolm consciously accepted a path to martyrdom, for a higher cause, and continues to be studied, admired, and celebrated by many others for doing so.

In the second stage of Malcolm's life, while in prison, he became interested in an organization called The Nation of Islam (hereafter, NOI), a version of the religion that was developed for and aimed at African Americans by a man named Elijah Muhammad. In this period Malcolm replaced his previous criminal and often self-destructive behaviour in exchange for a devout commitment to the NOI and its teachings. He grew out his conked hair and quit using narcotics, which he still had access to in prison. He began fervently reading books of all kinds, often by very little light in his prison cell at night which resulted in his needing to wear eyeglasses—a symbol of both knowledge/vision and blindness.

The teachings of NOI, although positive in some respects, were essentially based on a racist philosophy which stated that all white people were inherently evil. This belief was reinforced by a fabrication of history; a detailed mythology developed and taught by Elijah Muhammad, known as "Yacub’s History". In his autobiography, Malcolm X speaks in depth about this demonology on which the philosophies and practices of NOI were based. It states that sixty-six hundred years ago, the "first humans, Original Man, were black people", at which time there were no white people on earth (167-168). Among these first people was a rebellious mad scientist named Yacub. He embarked upon a complicated process of eugenics to create a "bleached-out white race of devils" (168) by grafting the recessive white genes of black people together and breeding, over hundreds of years, people of lighter and lighter complexions. The final result was a race of "blond, pale-skinned, cold-blue-eyed devils—savages, nude and shameless; hairy, like animals, they walked on all fours and they lived in trees" (168-169). Initially, when Malcolm was in prison and his conversion to the NOI was underway, he accepted Yacub's History as truth, as he was eager to blame "The White Man" for all the problems of the world, which he now saw as being centered on the victimization of his people. Later, he took Yacub’s story to be symbolic, and later still, he rejected it as a complete fabrication.

Upon his release from prison in 1952, at the age of twenty-seven, after serving six-and-a-half years of a ten-year sentence, Malcolm met with Elijah Muhammad and was designated as a minister. He was given the name "X" to replace his slave name of “Little”—X being the symbol in mathematics that represents the unknown (The Autobiography, 203). He abstained from eating pork and consuming narcotics of any kind (including tobacco and alcohol), prayed regularly, and devoutly studied the teachings of NOI. He recruited new members from the dregs of society, converting black men and women on ghetto streets from lives of prostitution, addiction, and crime, into devout followers of NOI. He gained a reputation as an impassioned speaker on behalf of the principles of NOI, for the liberation of black people in America from the oppressive clutches of the evil white man. He also preached of separation as the primary solution to the racial problems in America—that is, the willful disassociation of black people from white, either by returning to Africa or by creating a geographically separate, blacks-only, self-sufficient nation within America.

At the end of this second incarnation, Malcolm's final transformation began when he started to lose faith in Elijah Muhammad and the NOI, triggered by Malcolm's discovery of Muhammad as an adulterer—he had secretly fathered several children by his teenaged secretaries. Thus began Malcolm's split from the organization which he helped build, and his persecution by former colleagues within the NOI and by Elijah Muhammad himself.

Kierkegaard's second stage of existence, the ethical, both parallels and contrasts the second stage of Malcolm X's metamorphosis. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy interprets Kierkegaard's "ethics" as a set of values that prescribe to "the prevailing social norms. The social norms are seen to be the highest court of appeal for judging human affairs…even human sacrifice is justified in terms of how it serves the community" (sec. 4, par. 1). In contrast to this statement, Malcolm's ethics in his second stage, as a charismatic and committed yet blinded follower of the NOI, were anything but prescribing to "social norms". In fact, the values he openly supported went against the social norms. What does accurately apply to Malcolm's story from this interpretation of Kierkegaard is the last part, "human sacrifice is justified in terms of how it serves the community"—Malcolm's ethics were a source of motivation for him, outweighing any fear of harm to himself as he worked tirelessly to empower and uplift black communities. Ultimately, in his third and final incarnation, Malcolm X was to sacrifice his own life for this cause.

The second section of The Metamorphosis relates to the second stage of Malcolm X's life as well, in both similar and opposing ways. Here the narrative focuses largely on Gregor's inner world as he struggles to adapt to his new form, centering on his sensory perceptions and thoughts. In this respect it echoes qualities of the second stage of Malcolm X, as his focus at this time was on understanding and communicating the ethical belief system of NOI. At the end of this stage, as his regard within NOI changed from heroic to traitorous, Malcolm faced excessive persecution and derision from Elijah Muhammad. This mirrors the persecution that Gregor experiences from his father at the end of part two, who chases Gregor back into his room, his prison, by throwing apples at him (332-333). Similarly, Gregor's regard changes from one who provides for the family to one who is a burden to them. Another thematic link between the two stories is the view of Gregor's father as God, or, like Elijah Muhammad, a prophet of God and giver of life, both of whom attempt to purge the principal characters from their lives by punishing them, when in fact this frees them. The difference, once again, as in stage one of the metamorphoses of both Gregor Samsa and Malcolm X, is that Gregor shrinks deeper into isolation, injured and imprisoned, while Malcolm proactively carries on with his life, culminating with his final, higher realization.

This third and final major stage of Malcolm X's life was his total split from The Nation of Islam and his evolution into a spiritual leader in his own right. He abandoned many of the philosophies and practices of NOI that he had previously so rigorously preached on behalf of, and developed new, broader, and more enlightened teachings. It was at the pinnacle of this higher state of his spiritual awakening that he was assassinated, at age thirty-nine. The split began when Malcolm was suspended from NOI. The official reason for his suspension was a controversial public statement that he had made regarding the assassination of President Kennedy, but Malcolm knew it was for other reasons—he had discovered the truth about Elijah Muhammad's extramarital affairs. He had also grown in fame and influence to a level far greater than Muhammad himself, and like Julius Caesar, whose senators assassinated him for his immense ambition, Malcolm's own former colleagues now threatened to harm him.

During this time, Malcolm resolved to form his own new organization, and did so, taking many former NOI members with him. But the height of his final transformation occurred when he went on a holy pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Islam. Here his eyes were opened as he prayed, ate, and drank with people of all colours, from all over the world. Malcolm wrote of his experience in a letter to his wife, as excerpted from George Breitman's Malcolm X Speaks:

Malcolm X returned to America with a new outlook, and a new Muslim name—El Hajj Malik El Shabazz. His physical appearance also changed, now sporting a beard and frequently seen wearing a Russian-style fur hat. Previously, as a NOI minister, he had refused to work with any non-Muslim blacks. But, as Beatrice Gormley writes, "Malcolm now intended to cooperate with other organizations fighting for black rights, including civil rights groups" (111). Malcolm X: The Last Speeches provides numerous examples of Malcolm's newfound philosophy. He denounced his former proclamations of the inherent evil of all whites and claimed that many of the teachings of NOI were racist. Of Elijah Muhammad, in a letter to the New York Times, Malcolm claimed: "I shall never rest until I have undone the harm I did…through my own evangelistic zeal…I totally reject Elijah Muhammad's racist philosophy, which he has labeled 'Islam' only to fool and misuse gullible people" (Last, 115).

Malcolm's new outlook encompassed a global, inclusive view of racial problems, rejecting segregration as well as his formerly endorsed concept of separation for a new philosophy that incorporated working with people of all colours and nations, even whites. He had broken free from all previous political and historical shackles and abandoned his old vision in exchange for a new, more progressive and holistic one. By having personally embodied many facets of the Black Muslim and African American movements, he seemed predestined to become an inspiring leader of self-actualization, primarily for African Americans at first, and in the arena of the religion of Islam, but now for people of any race or religion. Thus he showed a rare courage in taking the risk to speak out against not only opposing political ideas, but also against beliefs which he himself had previously endorsed and been indoctrinated with: "We will work with anyone, with any group, no matter what their color is…no matter what their political, economic, or social philosophy is, as long as their aims and objectives are in the direction of destroying the vulturous system that has been sucking the blood of black people in this country" (qtd. in Breitman, 70).

To African heads of state, Malcolm said, "Our problem is your problem…a world problem; a problem for humanity. It is not a problem of civil rights but a problem of human rights" (qtd. in Breitman, 75). During this time, in the last year of his life, leading up to his assassination on February 21st, 1965, Malcolm worked on building his new organization and spoke frequently, passionately, at public rallies and in interviews. Each successive speech that Malcolm gave epitomized an aspect of his new philosophy. Quoted in Malcolm X: Journey To Freedom, Malcolm said, on January 18th, 1965, "I am not a racist. I am against every form of racism…every form of discrimination. I believe in human beings, and that all human beings should be respected as such, regardless of color" (Crushshon, 1). And six days before his murder, Malcolm said, "We don’t judge a man because of the color of his skin. We don't judge you because you're white; we don't judge you because you're black; we don't judge you because you're brown. We judge you because of what you do and what you practice" (Last, 158).

Malcolm had come a long way from his anti-white sermons of earlier days. And now, despite increased threats against his own life, he pressed forward to this higher state of truth. He had outgrown the street hustles, the prisons, the Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad, the political persecutions—he was bigger than it all. The only thing that could stop him, the only thing that did stop him, was death. Perhaps through death he became more powerful than ever though. Malcolm X as a martyr, his commitment to a cause he was willing to die for, his vision of a better future, and his unwavering faith in the existence of something greater, has continued to permeate the minds and actions of innumerable people in vastly immeasurable ways.

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy interprets Kierkegaard's third stage of life, the religious, as follows: "Faith is the most important task to be achieved by a human being, because only on the basis of faith does an individual have a chance to become a true self. This self is the life-work which God judges for eternity. The individual is thereby subject to an enormous burden of responsibility, for upon h/er existential choices hangs h/er eternal salvation or damnation" (sec. 6, par. 2-3). Malcolm's faith was his path to becoming his true self, as he wholeheartedly took his "enormous burden of responsibility", and transformed it, and himself, from damnation to salvation.

Part three of The Metamorphosis is the most spiritually focused of the three sections of the story, as it culminates with the ultimate, total ostracism of Gregor by his family, as he crawls to his room and quietly dies. This occurs after Gregor seeks a "salvation" of sorts through his sister's violin playing. Kafka writes, "He felt as if the way were opening before him to the unknown nourishment he craved" (339). This "way" to "unknown nourishment" is the path to the other plain of existence, the spiritual realm from which Gregor has been disconnected. He cannot find this nourishment in life, cursed to damnation in both human and insect incarnations, so that his only final path to salvation is through death. The difference again between the metamorphoses of Malcolm X and Gregor in this respect, is that Malcolm's death was a fate that he consciously accepted, concluding to push forward "by any means necessary", whereas Gregor's fate is one of unconscious defeat. The similarity between fates of these two characters is that each ultimately left their communities uplifted through their metamorphoses and subsequent deaths. Malcolm's peers and colleagues continued to be inspired and empowered by the magnitude of his words and actions, with the knowledge that he gave his own life for a higher cause. And Gregor's family are of heightened spirits following his death, as a "confirmation of their new dreams and excellent intentions is realized" at the end of the story (Kafka, 345).

The metamorphosis of Malcolm X is a fascinating story of the power and complexity of the human experience, in all its flawed limitations and all its glorious triumphs, and of the remarkable capacity for tremendous change within the human spirit. He was a man whose personal strength, intelligence, and will exceeded the restrictions of his time, whether self-imposed or brought upon him by external forces. As Malcolm Little, Detroit Red, Satan, Malcolm X, or El Hajj Malik El Shabazz, he embodied the full spectrum of human experiences, from the aesthetic, ethical, and religious, to the external, internal, and spiritual. Whether as a drug-addicted street hustler, a victim of racism in America, a devout yet blinded preacher, a free-thinking, passionate activist of human rights, or as a global-minded spiritual leader of all races and religions, Malcolm's courage to speak the truth as he saw it at each stage along his evolutionary path is a rare quality in the history of humankind. His story evokes the sentiment that he was not, in fact, just a human being having a spiritual experience, but truly a spiritual being having a human experience.

WORKS CITED

Barry, Thomas F., et al. Readings on the Metamorphosis. San Diego: Greenhaven, 2002.

Breitman, George. The Last year of Malcolm X:  The Evolution of a Revolutionary. New York: Pathfinder, 1967.

---, ed. Malcolm X Speaks: selected speeches and Statements. New York: Pathfinder, 1989.

Crushshon, Theresa. Malcolm X: Journey to Freedom. Chanhassen, MN: The Child’s World, 2002.

Gormley, Beatrice. Malcolm X: A Revolutionary Voice. New York: Sterling, 2008.

Kafka, Franz. "The Metamorphosis." 1915. An Introduction to Fiction. 6th ed. Dana Gioia and X.J. Kennedy, eds. New York: Harper, 1995. 311-46

Kierkegaard, Søren. Stages on life's Way. Trans. Walter Lowrie. Introduction by Paul Sponheim. New York: Schocken Books, 1967.

McDonald, William. "Søren Kierkegaard."  The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Winter 2008 Edition. Edward N. Zalta, ed. URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/kierkegaard/>.  Accessed 28 March 2009.

Perry, Bruce, ed.  Malcolm X: The Last Speeches.  New York: Pathfinder, 1989.

X, Malcolm, and Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine, 1965.